The Origins of Direct Democracy-PART III
California's Adoption of the Initiative and Referendum
Teddy Roosevelt encouraged the adoption of Direct Democracy state by state. Today, twenty-seven states have adopted Direct Democracy powers. Here is a list if you are interested: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Alaska, Hawaii, New Mexico.
Historical background leading to the adoption of Direct Democracy in California in 1911
The California constitutional amendments establishing Direct Democracy powers in California, including the initiative and referendum processes, were enacted through a voter initiative in 1911, approved directly by the voters of California.
A series of constitutional amendments known collectively as the "Direct Primary, Initiative, and Referendum Amendments" established the direct primary system for selecting political party nominees and introduced the initiative and referendum processes, granting citizens the power to propose and enact laws and to reject or repeal existing laws through popular vote.
The initiative and referendum amendments were a significant milestone in California's political history, marking the beginning of the state's embrace of Direct Democracy and direct citizen participation in the legislative process.
This was a break with the founding principles of a representative government form. The policy was energized by the progressive reform movement of the early 20th century. The stated aim of that movement was to increase transparency, accountability, and responsiveness in government by empowering the people the power to shape public policy by direct popular vote. Opponents refer to it as “mob rule.”
Between 1890 and 1915, American society was experiencing profound social, economic, and political transformations. Rapid industrialization fueled unprecedented economic growth and urbanization, leading to the rise of industrial cities and an emerging new urban working class. Technological innovations, such as electricity, the telephone, and the automobile revolutionized daily life and facilitated the expansion of industry and commerce.
However, this period also witnessed widespread social inequality, labor unrest, and urban poverty, as workers grappled with harsh working conditions, low wages, and inadequate living standards. Immigration soared, with millions of newcomers arriving in search of opportunity, leading to cultural diversity and demographic shifts across the nation. Meanwhile, progressive reform movements gained momentum, fueled by concerns over corruption, social injustice, and the concentration of wealth and power.
The era saw the passage of landmark legislation, such as antitrust laws, labor protections, women's suffrage, direct election of Senators, the Federal Reserve Act, and the implementation of personal income taxes, as reformers sought to address the challenges of industrialization and promote social justice and democracy.
Progressive Movement
The Progressive Movement emerged around the turn of the 20th Century in the late 1800’s to early 1900’s. It was a response to the monopolistic trusts controlled by the major industrialists at the time, and the control of the political parties by industrial and banking interests. According to the Progressive rhetoric of the times, special interest corruption was undermining democratic governance and exerting undue influence of powerful economic and political interests over the legislative process. There was ample evidence this was the case.
During the term of Teddy Roosevelt, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing, and enormously wealthy industrialists formed monopolistic trusts, controlled banking and investment, and controlled the political party machinery. The working class was increasingly exploited and marginalized through the systematic reduction of choices and alternatives to the economic designs of the industrial elites.
When reading these words in the modern context, it all sounds pretty familiar. This raises the question of whether the cure was worse than the disease. I will dive deeper into this later.
As a response to this widespread corruption undermining the founding principles of republicanism, Roosevelt, a Republican, focused on the following key areas:
Labor Movements and Strikes: Roosevelt recognized the plight of American workers and the challenges they faced in dealing with exploitative labor practices, unsafe working conditions, and inadequate wages. He supported the rights of workers to organize labor unions and engage in collective bargaining to improve their working conditions and wages. Roosevelt's administration intervened in several labor disputes during his presidency, including the Coal Strike of 1902, where he mediated a settlement between coal miners and mine owners to prevent a nationwide strike.
Muckraking Journalism: Roosevelt acknowledged the important role of investigative journalists and muckrakers in exposing corruption, corporate abuses, and social injustices. He praised the work of journalists such as Lincoln Steffens, Ida Tarbell, and Upton Sinclair for their efforts to uncover corruption in government and business, which helped to raise public awareness and galvanize support for reform efforts.
Political Reforms and Anti-Corruption Measures: Roosevelt, aiming to curb corruption and increase transparency in government, supported various political reforms. He advocated for civil service reform, campaign finance reform, and anti-trust legislation designed to reduce the influence of special interests and increase accountability of public office. Roosevelt's administration pursued several high-profile anti-trust cases, including the dissolution of the Northern Securities Company and Standard Oil Company, to break up monopolistic trusts and promote greater marketplace competition.
Progressive Activism and Civic Engagement: Roosevelt recognized the importance of grassroots activism and civic engagement in advancing social and political reforms. He encouraged ordinary citizens to take an active role in government, participate in public affairs, and hold elected officials accountable for their actions.
Roosevelt's presidency coincided with the height of the Progressive Era, a period of widespread social and political activism targeting social injustices, promoting economic opportunity, and expanding democracy in America.
Roosevelt ran for reelection against Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson, and Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Debs, but dropped out of the race and endorsed Taft, who won. Taft continued many of the Progressive policies initiated by Roosevelt.
In the next election, Woodrow Wilson won and presided over significant legislative acts and Constitutional Amendments.
Federal Reserve Act: Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act into law in 1913, establishing the Federal Reserve System. This was the third and current central bank in the history of America.
Clayton Antitrust Act: In 1914, Wilson signed the Clayton Antitrust Act, which strengthened existing antitrust laws and prohibited certain business practices that were deemed anticompetitive.
Federal Trade Commission (FTC): Also in 1914, the Federal Trade Commission Act established the Federal Trade Commission.
Tariff Reform: Wilson also pushed for the passage of the Underwood Tariff Act in 1913, which significantly reduced tariffs on imported goods.
Labor Reforms: Wilson supported the Adamson Act of 1916, which established an eight-hour workday for railroad workers, and the Seamen's Act of 1915, which improved working conditions for sailors.
Foreign Policy: Wilson's advocacy for international cooperation and collective security laid the groundwork for the League of Nations.
Wilson also advocated for three key Constitutional Amendments:
Income Tax: The 16th Amendment, introduced under Roosevelt and ratified under Wilson in 1913, granted Congress the power to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census.
Direct Senate Elections: The direct election of senators was enacted with the ratification of the 17th Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913. The 17th Amendment superseded Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution, which originally provided for the election of senators by state legislatures.
Women's Suffrage: Although Wilson initially opposed women's suffrage, he eventually came to support it and advocated for the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted women the right to vote. The amendment was ratified in 1920 during Wilson's second term.
Wilson, like his antebellum predecessors of the Democratic Party, was openly racist. Particularly in the realm of domestic policy, his record on civil rights is marred by his administration's support for racial segregation and his own racial biases. For example, shortly after taking office, Wilson's administration implemented policies that effectively segregated federal workplaces, reversing the limited progress made toward integration during the Reconstruction era. This included segregating various federal agencies, such as the Treasury Department and the Postal Service, which had previously employed African Americans in integrated positions.
The trio of Teddy Roosevelt, Howard Taft, and Woodrow Willson established the foundations of Progressive policies, many of which contradicted the founding principles established in our U.S. Constitution.
After a series of less prominent Presidencies, building upon the foundation of Progressive policies achieved by his predecessors, the three-term President, Franklin D. Roosevelt appears on the scene. So progressive were his policies, that they were re-branded as the New Deal.
Included in this legacy parade of Progressive Presidents we must mention Lyndon Johnson, who is famous (or infamous) for the War on Poverty programs, which when viewed in terms of outcomes, were both politically racist and not only failed to end poverty but made it worse.
As reported by Ronald Kessler’s book, Inside the White House, Johnson was said to have explained his Great Society agenda to two state Governors this way: “I'll have those n*****s voting Democrat for two hundred years.” As a white man, I can’t even write the “n” word for you to read (as if using *s makes it less clear…). Whether true or not, history has confirmed that Johnson’s “help” has been devastating for the black community, and yet, they have been up to now reliable voters for Democrats.
We can’t mention Progressive Presidents without naming Barack Obama, but the history of his Presidency is yet to be fully written. Joe Biden, the current occupant of the White House, has been so progressive in his administration’s policies they were given a new name: “Woke.” Historians will be discussing our modern Presidential politics long after I’m gone.
While there is an “arc of history” that we can see with increasing clarity as we head toward the 2024 Presidential election, Presidents after Wilson are beyond the scope of this article.
In Part IV, we will take a closer look at the features of Direct Democracy, and examine some examples of major legislation enacted by the voters.